ABERRATION 
a term which, if used to denote a number of individuals within a species, unequivocally signifies infrasubspecific rank. 
affinis, afin. 
affinity, relationship, sometimes misleadingly employed as a synonym for phenetic similarity. (= akin to). 
AGGREGATE 
a group of species, other than a subgenus, within a genus; or a group of subspecies within a species. An aggregate may be denoted by a group name interpolated in parentheses. 
alii, aliorum, al. 
others, of others. 
ALLOTYPE 
paratype (qv) of the opposite sex to the holotype (qv). 
AMBIGUOUS NAME 
see Nomen ambiguum. 
APPLICATION TO THE COMMISSION 
any zoologist may submit nomenclatural problems to the Commission (qv). These are published in Bulletin Zoological Nomenclature. 
APPROVED NAME 
one given approval by the Commission (qv) for use in nomenclature. 
apud 
with, in the work of. 
ARTICLE 
numbered section of the Code (qv). 
ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION 
classification (qv) based on convenient or conspicuous diagnostic characters without attention to characters indicating relationship; often a classification based on a single arbitrarily chosen character, rather than an evaluation of the totality of characters. 
auctorum, auct. 
of authors. 
auctorum non, auct. non 
not of authors. 
AUTHOR CITATION 
the name of the authority (qv) for a taxon name, when cited, should follow the taxon name without any intervening marks or punctuation. Its citation is optional and may or may not be followed immediately by the year. Examples:- 
A.... Smith 1970 
Smith was the first person to validly publish the name A...., which he did in 1970. 
A.... Smith in Jones 1970 
Smith was the first person to validly publish the name A...., which he did within a publication by Jones in 1970. 
A.... Smith 1970 ex Jones 1942 
Smith was the first person to validly publish the name A.... in 1970, but which had formerly been used by Jones in 1942, but which he had never validly published. 
A.... b.... (Smith) 1970 or A.... b.... (Smith 1970) 
Smith was the first person to validly publish the species name b.... in 1970, but which at the time he put in combination (qv) with another genus name. 
A.... c.... (Smith) Jones 
Smith was the first person to validly publish the species name c...., but which at that time he put in combination (qv) with another genus name. Jones is responsible for the transfer of the species to genus A..... 
A.... b.... [Smith] 
The name was originally published anonymously but from external information the author is known to be Smith. 
A.... Smith [1970] 
Date of publication established solely from external evidence e.g. publisher's correspondence. 
A.... Smith 1970 non Jones 1860 nec Brown 1967 
The genus referred to is specifically that described by Smith 1970 and not those homonymous (qv) genera described by Jones 1860 or Brown 1967. 
A.... b.... Smith 1970 sensu Jones 1977
A.... b.... Smith : Jones
A.... b.... : Jones 
These all mean that A.... b.... was originally published by Smith, but that this refers specifically to a subsequent, more restricted usage of the name i.e. as used by Jones (: may sometimes be given as ;). 
A.... b.... auct. non Smith 1970
A.... b.... sensu auct. non Smith 1970 
These refer to instances of the use of A.... b.... by all authors for a taxon which is other than that as published by Smith 1970. 
A.... b.... Smith, partim Jones
A.... b.... Smith, emend. Jones 
These both mean Smith originally published A.... b...., but later Jones further subdivided the species so that its diagnosis was more limited than that originally published by Smith. See also Emended diagnosis. 
AUTHORITY 
the name of the author of a taxonomic name, cited after the name. See also:- Authorship, Author citation. 
AUTHORSHIP 
the author of a taxonomic name is the person who alone is responsible for both the name and for the conditions which make it available (qv) i.e. the diagnosis etc. Rules concerning authorship - Article 50, 51. See also: `Author citation'. 
AVAILABLE NAME 
any name which conforms to all mandatory provisions of the Code (qv). Articles 10-20. There are general requirements of publication and date, language, name formation etc. An available name is not necessarily a valid name (qv), as an available name may be in synonymy (qv). Conversely a valid name must always be an available one. Available names include nomen inviolatum, - conservandum, - perfectum, - vanum, - correctum, - substitutum, - imperfectum (all qv). 
BINOMEN 
the combination of two names, the first being a generic name and the second a specific name, that together constitute the scientific name of a species. 
CHEIRONYM 
see Manuscript name. 
citatus, - a, - um, cit. 
cited. 
CLADISTIC CLASSIFICATION 
classification (qv) based on `recency of common descent', i.e. categories depend on the position of the branching points on the inferred phylogenetic tree. 
CLASSIFICATION 
the ordering of organisms into groups on the basis of their relationships. 
CODE 
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. An Authoritative document containing a system of rules and recommendations to be followed in giving a scientific name to an animal or animal group. Adopted by the International Congresses (qv) of Zoology and Administered by the International Commission (qv) on Zoological Nomenclature. The most recent version of the Code, adopted in principle by the 20th General Assembly of the International Union of Biological Sciences at Helsinki in 1979, was approved by the ICZN late in 1983. With minor exceptions it retains the same format as the first two editions (1961,1963). Minor amendments for immediate incorporation are published in Bulletin Zoological Nomenclature as `Declarations' to remain in force until ratified or rejected by future congresses. 
COLLECTIVE GROUP 
an aggregate of related species of which the generic position is uncertain (most often used in palaeontology and parasitology). According to the Code (qv), for the sake of taxonomic convenience, may be treated as a genus - Article 42b. Such a collective group does not require a type species. Assignment to a collective group is a temporary, convenient, identifying label. 
COLLECTIVE-GROUP NAME 
1. a name established expressly for a collective group. 2. a name established for a nominal genus or subgenus and later used for a collective group. 
COMBINATIO NOVUM, COMB. NOV. 
new combination - a combination (qv) validly published for the first time. 
COMBINATION 
the name of a species or subspecies consisting of the name of the genus followed by the specific or specific plus subspecific names. 
COMMISSION 
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The duties and operation of the Commission are regulated by the Code (qv), and the powers and duties of the Commission are authorized by the International Zoological Congresses (qv). 
COMMON NAME 
see Vernacular name. 
COMPOUND NAME 
one that is formed by the union of two or more basic components, excluding prefixes and suffixes. e.g. striatoradiatus, novaeguineae, fritzmuelleri, c-album 
Confer, cf. 
compare. 
CONGENERICITY 
congeneric species are species belonging to the same genus. Congeneric applied to generic names usually implies that the names refer to the same taxon i.e. synonymous genera. 
CONSERVATION 
the Code (qv) allows conservation of certain names which, though in fact are invalid according to the Code, have continued to be used and have won `general acceptance' i.e. validation (qv) acquired through general acceptance. See Articles 23a-b, 40. The name becomes a nomen conservandum (qv). 
CONSERVED NAME 
see Nomen conservandum. 
CONSPECIFICITY 
conspecific subspecies are subspecies belonging to the same species. Conspecific applied to species names usually implies that the names refer to the same taxon i.e. synonymous species. 
CORRECTED NAME 
see Nomen correctum. 
CORRECT ORIGINAL SPELLING 
see Original spelling. 
COTYPE 
a term formerly used for either syntype or paratype. 
DECLARATION 
a minor amendment to the Code (qv) for immediate incorporation, published in Bulletin Zoological Nomenclature, to remain in force until ratified or rejected by future International Zoological Congresses (qv). 
DEFINITION 
see Diagnosis. 
DENIED NAME 
see Nomen negatum. 
DESCRIPTION 
a more or less complete statement of the observed characters of a taxon, without any special emphasis on those which distinguish it from other closely related taxa. See also: Diagnosis, Original description, Redescription. 
DESIGNATION 
Selection. See also : Type designation. 
DIACRITIC MARKS 
Article 27 rules that diacritic marks, apostrophes or diaereses are not to be used in a taxonomic name and are to be deleted from such names originally published with them. (For exception see Article 32d(i)). The German umlaut sign deleted from a vowel should be replaced by `e' inserted after the vowel, but only for taxonomic names published up to and including 1984. 
DIAGNOSIS 
a formal statement of characters or most important characters (= diagnostic characters qv) which distinguish a taxon from other similar or closely related taxa. (= Definition). See also : Description, Emended diagnosis. 
DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS 
the characters, or most important characters, which distinguish a taxon from other similar or closely related taxa. See also: Diagnosis. 
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 
see Diagnosis. 
DIRECTION 
a decision of the Commission (qv) completing an earlier ruling and formal instruments required under automatic provisions of the code (qv). Questions of zoological nomenclature which do not involve changes in the Code. Have the same status as Opinions (qv). 
DIVISION 
1. a rank that if treated as a division of a genus or subgenus is deemed to be of subgeneric rank for the purposes of nomenclature.
2. a taxon at the rank of division. 
DOUBTFUL NAME 
see Nomen dubium. 
DUBIOUS NAME 
see Nomen dubium. 
ELEVATION IN RANK 
see Status. 
EMENDATION 
any demonstrably intentional change in the original spelling (qv) of an available name (Article 33b), other than a mandatory change (Article 34). (Does not include emendation of the scope of application of a name, which = emended diagnosis (qv)). 
JUSTIFIABLE EMENDATION 
correction of an incorrect original spelling, takes authorship and date of original spelling (Article 33b(ii)). 
UNJUSTIFIABLE EMENDATION 
one made for any other reason, such names have their own status in nomenclature, taking authorship and date of their publication (Article 33b(iii)). 
emendatus, - a, - um, emend. 
emendation. 
EMENDED DIAGNOSIS 
change in the scope of application of a name, involving a change in the diagnosis (qv) of the taxon. Use for : Redefinition. (Not the same as emendation qv). 
ENTITY, TAXONOMIC 
see Taxon. 
ERECT 
see Establish. 
ESTABLISH 
used of a name = to make available (qv). 
et alia, et al. 
and others. 
ex 
from, according to. Sometimes used within an authority citation (qv). 
ex nomine 
by or under that name. 
ex parte, e.p. 
in part. See pro parte. 
exclusus, - a, - um, excl. 
excluded - used to indicate elements included in a taxon by a previous author or authors, but considered not to belong to it by the writer and excluded from it by him. 
FAMILY GROUP 
the highest-ranking group of taxa whose names are regulated by the Code. The family group includes taxa at the ranks of superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, and any other rank below superfamily and above the genus group that may be required, such as subtribe 
fide 
on the authority of, or with reference to publication, to a cited published statement. 
FIELD IDENTIFICATION 
the determination of the taxonomic identity of an individual specimen, under field conditions, often with the aid of keys etc. See also : Identification. 
FIRST REVISER 
the first author to publish a definite choice of one among two or more names which are equally available under the Code (qv). In order to qualify as a first reviser an author must give evidence of a choice between the available alternatives. Article 24b. 
FIXATION 
a general term for determination of type (qv), whether by designation (qv), or indication (qv). 
FORGOTTEN NAME 
see Nomen oblitum. 
FORM (FORMA) 
an infrasubspecific (qv) category which has no status in the Code. Article 45e. 
GENERITYPE 
see Type species. 
GENEROTYPE 
see Type species. 
GENOTYPE 
the genetic constitution of an individual or taxon. Not to be confused with type species (qv) of a genus for which it is sometimes erroneously used. Compare: Phenotype. 
GENUS-GROUP 
the taxonomic categories genus and subgenus. 
HAPANTOTYPE 
one or more preparations of directly related individuals, representing differing stages in the life cycle, together forming a name-bearing type in an extinct species of Protozoa. 
HOLOTYPE 
a single specimen designated or indicated the type specimen (qv) by the original author at the time of publication of the original description. 
HOMONYM 
each of two or more identical but independently proposed names for the same or different taxa. 
JUNIOR HOMONYM 
later published of two homonyms (= a preoccupied name qv). 
SENIOR HOMONYM 
earlier published of two homonyms. 
PRIMARY HOMONYM 
each of two or more identical species names, which, at the time of original publication, were proposed in combination (qv) with the same generic name i.e. the species were named for different although homonymous genera. 
SECONDARY HOMONYM 
each of two or more identical species names, which, at the time of original publication, were proposed in combination (qv) with different generic names, but which, through subsequent transference, have come to bear the same combination of generic and specific name. 
HOMONYM CITATION 
authorship (qv) for two or more homonyms may be cited using `non' and/or `nec' as follows:- A.... Smith 1947 non Jones 1958 nec Brown 1960. 
HOMONYMY (principle of) 
any name that is a junior homonym of an available name must be rejected and replaced- Article 53. 
HORIZONTAL CLASSIFICATION 
classification (qv) which stresses grouping together taxa in a similar stage of evolution, rather than location on the same phyletic line. See also : Vertical classification. 
HYBRID NAME 
names given to hybrids are not normally available (qv), as they are individuals, not populations, and hence not taxa. See also Article 17(2). 
ibidem, ibid, ib. 
the same, in the same place. 
ICHNOTAXON 
a taxon based on the (fossilized) work of an animal (qv), including fossilized trails, tracks and burrows (trace fossils), made by an animals. The 3rd edition of the Code admits such names as available. 
ICONOTYPE 
a drawing or photograph of a type specimen. 
IDENTIFICATION 
the placing of individual specimens into previously established taxa, by deductive procedures. The determination of the taxonomic identity of an individual. See also : Field identification, Misidentification. 
ILLEGITIMATE NAME 
see Invalid name. 
IMPERFECT NAME 
see Nomen imperfectum. 
in litteris, in litt. 
in correspondence. 
incertae sedis 
of a taxon - one of uncertain taxonomic position, `of uncertain seat'. 
INCORRECT SUBSEQUENT SPELLING 
see Subsequent spelling. 
INDICATION 
-publication of evidence that a name proposed before 1931 is available, despite the absence of a definition or description (Article 12b). See also 'Typification' 
- or a method of fixing the type species of a nominal genus (Articles 67b, 67h, 68c-e). 
ineditus, - a, - um 
unpublished 
INFRASUBSPECIFIC 
of a category or name - of lower rank than the subspecies, and, as such, not subject to regulation by the Code (qv) e.g. form, race, variety. Articles 1, 45c. 
INTERNATIONAL CODE OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE 
see Code. 
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION 
see Commission. 
INTERNATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL CONGRESSES 
the legislative bodies responsible for the rules of the Code (qv) and for authorization of the activities of the Commission (qv). 
INVALID NAME 
any name (available (qv) or unavailable (qv)) given to a taxon which is not the valid name (qv). 
INVALIDATION 
the action of making a name invalid (qv). May be brought about by suppression (qv) by the Commission. 
INVIOLATE NAME 
see Nomen inviolatum. 
JUNIOR HOMONYM 
the later published of two or more identical but independently proposed names for the same or different taxa. (= a preoccupied name). See also : Homonym. 
JUNIOR SYNONYM 
the later published of two or more different names applied to one and the same taxon. See also : Synonym. 
JUSTIFIABLE EMENDATION 
see Emendation. 
KEY 
a tabulation of diagnostic characters (qv) of taxa in dichotomous couplets to facilitate rapid identification. Key character - a character of special utility in a key. 
lapsus calami 
a `slip of the pen', an unintentional error, especially in spelling taxonomic names. (Compare : Unjustifiable emendation). 
LAW OF HOMONYMY 
see Homonymy, Principle of. 
LAW OF PRIORITY 
see Priority, Principle of. 
LEGITIMATE NAME 
see Valid name. 
LECTOTYPE 
one of several syntypes (qv), designated by any author after the original publication of a species name as the `type specimen' (qv) for the taxonomic name. Designated only where there was no original holotype (qv) (Article 74). 
LIMITATION, STATUTE OF 
a provision of the Code (qv) (Article 23b) to protect a universally adopted junior name against the revival of a forgotten senior synonym (which = a nomen oblitum qv). 
LINE PRECEDENCE 
when two different names for the same taxon are first published in the same publication, then the one which appears on the earlier line has line precedence. (See also: Page precedence). Line precedence does not necessarily mean priority as well - this is determined by the action of the first reviser (qv). 
loco citato, loc. cit., l.c. 
in the place cited, used to avoid repetition of a bibliographic reference already given. 
MANUSCRIPT NAME 
an unpublished (qv) taxonomic name, may be intended for eventual publication or be used in correspondence or in public speech. Have no standing in nomenclature until they are acceptably published. 
mihi, m. 
to me, dative singular of ego, I. Used after a name to indicate the writer's responsibility for its proposal. 
MISIDENTIFICATION 
the misapplication of a previously established taxon name to an individual specimen. See also : Identification. 
MONOTYPY 
a situation where a taxon is established with only one immediately subordinate taxon. e.g. a genus containing only one species. 
mutatis characteribus, mut. char. 
with the characters changed (by), used in same way as emendatus (qv). 
NAKED NAME 
see Nomen nudum. 
NAME BEARING TYPE 
the type genus, type species, holotype, lectotype, series of syntypes (which, together, form the name- bearing type), neotype, type slide, or hapantotype, that provides the objective standard of reference whereby the application of the name of a taxon can be determined. 
natio 
race. 
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION 
classification (qv) based on inferences concerning the phylogenetic relationships of animals (i.e. evolutionary classification). 
nec 
and not (of), nor (of). 
NEOTYPE 
a specimen selected as type specimen (qv) subsequent to the original description in cases where the original holotype (qv), or lectotype (qv), or all paratypes (qv), or all syntypes (qv) are lost or destroyed, or suppressed by the Commission. 
NEW COMBINATION 
see Comb. nov. 
NEW NAME 
see Nomen novum. 
NEW STATUS 
see STATUS. 
nobis, nob., n. 
to us, dative plural of ego, I. Used after a name to indicate the author's responsibility for its proposal. 
NOMEN AMBIGUUM 
ambiguous name, one which has been used so long by different authors in different senses that it has become a persistent cause of error and confusion. 
NOMEN COLLECTIVUM 
see Collective group. 
NOMEN CONSERVANDUM (NOMINA CONSERVATA) 
names classed as available and valid by action of the ICZN exercising its Plenary Powers (qv). Includes rulings to conserve junior synonyms in place of rejected forgotten names (nomen oblitum qv). Such names are entered on the Official Lists (qv). 
NOMEN CORRECTUM (NOMINA CORRECTA) 
corrected names or `improved' names, available names which are mandatory and allowable emendations of imperfect names (qv) or of taxonomic names higher than family (which are not subject to name form and ending regulations). Do not depend on transfer in taxon rank or assignment. (= an emended name). 
NOMEN DUBIUM (NOMINA DUBIA) 
doubtful or dubious names, names which are not certainly applicable to any known taxon or for which the evidence is insufficient to permit recognition of the taxon to which they belong. May possess availability conducive to uncertainty and instability. 
NOMEN IMPERFECTUM (NOMINA IMPERFECTA) 
imperfect names, available names which when originally published met all mandatory requirements of the Code (i.e. met all criteria of availability (qv) - Articles 10-20) but which contained some defect needing correction, such as names incorporating hyphens, diacritical marks or apostrophes, higher taxon names using an incorrectly formed stem. 
NOMEN INQUIRENDUM (NOMINA INQUIRENDA) 
`names under enquiry'. See Nomen dubium. 
NOMEN INVIOLATUM (NOMINA INVIOLATA) 
inviolate names, all available names not subject to any sort of alteration from their originally published form i.e. they were correct as originally published and need no correction or emendation (qv). 
NOMEN NEGATUM (NOMINA NEGATA) 
denied names, unavailable names which are incorrect original spellings (qv) as defined by the Code (Article 32c). 
nomen non rite publicatum., nom. non rite public. 
name not properly published. See : Unpublished name, Manuscript name. 
NOMEN NOVUM (= NOM NOV ) 
new name which is expressly proposed as a replacement name for a preoccupied name (qv), automatically takes the same type and type locality. (= a replacement name or substitute name for a preoccupied name). Commonly applied to names proposed to replace junior homonyms (qv). 
NOMEN NUDUM (NOMINA NUDA) 
naked names, unavailable names which do not satisfy the conditions of the Code Articles 12, 13a and 16. e.g. published without description or sufficient reference thereto. 
NOMEN NULLUM (NOMINA NULLA) 
null names, unavailable names which as defined by the Code Article 33b are non demonstrably intentional changes of an original spelling i.e. a form of incorrect subsequent spelling (qv). 
NOMEN OBLITUM (NOMINA OBLITA) 
forgotten names, senior synonyms which have remained unused in the literature for more than 50 years. Not to be used unless specifically so directed by the ICZN. 
NOMEN PERFECTUM (NOMINA PERFECTA) 
perfect names, available names which when originally published met all mandatory requirements of the Code and needed no correction of any kind, but which are validly alterable by change of ending. 
NOMEN SUBSTITUTUM (NOMINA SUBSTITUTA) 
substitute names, available names proposed as replacements for invalid names, such as junior homonyms. A substitute name proposed specifically for a preoccupied name is a nomen novum (qv). 
NOMEN TRANSLATUM (NOMINA TRANSLATA) 
transferred names, available names which have been altered (usually in endings only), the change depending on transfer from one taxonomic rank to another, or from one taxon to another. e.g. Spirifer ambiguus changed to new combination (qv) Composita ambigua: Orthidae downgraded to Orthinae etc. Authorship and date remains as for original name. 
NOMEN TRIVIALE 
trivial name, an expression used by Linnaeus and others for the specific name. Applied by some authors in same sense as vernacular name (qv). 
NOMEN VANUM (NOMINA VANA) 
vain names, available names consisting of unjustified but intentional emendations (qv) of previously published names. Have status in nomenclature with their own authorship and date. 
NOMEN VETITUM (NOMINA VETITA) 
impermissible names, unavailable names published for divisions of the genus group other than genus and subgenus, which are not accepted by the Code. e.g. a subsection of a subgenus. 
NOMENCLATURE 
the description of new taxa or alterations to the concept of previously described taxa which involve changes in the names of taxa. 
NOMINAL TAXON 
a named taxon, objectively defined by its type taxon. Thus the nominal family MUSCIDAE is always the one to which its nominal type genus, Musca, belongs. 
NOMINATE SUBORDINATE TAXON 
a subordinate taxon which bears the same names as its immediate higher taxon (with endings altered according to rank for higher taxa). Thus Grus grus is the nominate species of the genus Grus. 
NULL NAME 
see Nomen nullum. 
NUMERICAL TAXONOMY 
study of the relationships of taxa by the application of numerical similarity values to characters so as to rank into categories based on degree of overall similarity. 
NUMERICLATURE 
an attempt to express the natural order (i.e. classification qv) of animals in numbers, so that each taxon name is represented by a numerical code, the structure of which indicates its taxonomic position, rank and affinities. 
OBJECTIVE SYNONYM 
each of two or more different names applied to one and the same taxon based on the same type. See also : Synonym. 
OFFICIAL INDEX 
a list of names or works suppressed (qv) or declared invalid by action of the Commission (qv). The following are compiled and maintained:-
- Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Family-Group Names in Zoology.
- Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Generic-Group Names in Zoology.
- Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Specific-Group Names in Zoology.
- Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Works in Zoological Nomenclature.
OFFICIAL LIST 
a list of names or works which have been conserved (qv) or declared valid by action of the Commission (qv). The following are compiled and maintained:-
- Official List of Family-Group Names in Zoology.
- Official List of Generic Names in Zoology.
- Official List of Specific Names in Zoology.
- Official List of Works Approved as Available for Zoological Nomenclature.
opera citato, op. cit. 
in the work cited, used to avoid the repetition of part of a bibliographic reference already given. 
OPINION 
a decision of the Commission (qv) involving a question of application of the Code (qv) to a particular name and situation, published in Bulletin Zoological Nomenclature. 
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION 
a more or less complete statement of the observed characters of a taxon, without any particular emphasis on distinguishing characters, published at the timeof proposal of a new taxonomic name. See also : Description, Original diagnosis. 
ORIGINAL DIAGNOSIS 
a formal statement of characters which distinguish a taxon from other similar or closely related taxa, published at the time of proposal of a new taxonomic name. See also : Diagnosis, Original description. 
ORIGINAL SPELLING 
the original spelling of a name is to be kept as the `correct original spelling' unless it does not meet the requirements of the Code Article 32. 
orthographia mutata, orth. mut. 
with an altered spelling (by). 
PAGE PRECEDENCE 
when two names for the same taxon are first published in the same publication, then the one which appears on the earlier page has precedence. Page precedence does not necessarily mean priority (qv) as well - this is determined by the action of the first reviser (qv). See also : Line precedence. 
PARALECTOTYPE 
any one of the original syntypes (qv) remaining after the selection of a lectotype (qv). 
PARATYPE 
every specimen in a type series other than the holotype (qv) which were before the author at the time of preparation of the original description and were so designated and indicated there. 
PERFECT NAME 
see Nomen perfectum. 
PHENETIC CLASSIFICATION 
classification (qv) based on degree of overall similarity. 
PHENOTYPE 
the total characteristics of an individual (i.e. its appearance) resulting from interaction between its genotype (qv) and its environment. 
PLENARY POWERS 
the Commission (qv) is empowered by use of its Plenary Powers to prevent the application of a rule of the Code (qv) where such application in a particular case would disturb the stability or universality or cause confusion in Zoological nomenclature. Article 79. 
PLESIOTYPE 
a specimen identified by a subsequent author as belonging to a particular species. 
PREOCCUPIED NAME 
the later published of two identical but independently proposed names for the same or different taxa. = Junior homonym (qv). 
PRIMARY HOMONYM 
each of two or more identical species names, which, at the time of original publication, were proposed in combination with the same generic name i.e. the species were named for different, though homonymous genera. See also : Homonym. 
PRIORITY (PRINCIPLE OF) 
the valid name of a taxon is the oldest available name applied to it (considering certain provision - see Article 23), provided that the name is not invalidated (qv) by the Code or suppressed (qv) by the Commission. 
pro parte, p. p. 
in part, used in author citations to show that only part of a taxon, as defined by a previous author, is being referred to by the writer. 
PROPOSAL TO COMMISSION 
see Application to Commission. 
PUBLISHED NAME 
any name which is printed and circulated (i.e. meets the criteria of publication as stated by the Code Articles 7-9), may be available, unavailable, valid or invalid. 
RACE 
an infrasubspecific (qv) category which has no status under the Code. 
RANK 
see Status. 
RECOMMENDATION BY COMMISSION 
published along with the Code (qv), indicate the best procedure in cases not strictly covered by application of the rules. Compliance with them is not mandatory but highly advisable. 
REDEFINITION 
see Emended diagnosis. 
REDESCRIPTION 
a more or less complete statement of the observed characters of a taxon, without any special emphasis on those which distinguish it from other closely related taxa, including new or altered information to that usually given in the description (qv). 
REDUCTION IN STATUS 
see Status. 
REFERRAL 
transfer of a subordinate taxon from one taxon to another e.g. species removed from one genus and referred to another, genus removed from one family and referred to another. 
REFUSAL BY COMMISSION 
the Commission (qv) may refuse to use its Plenary Powers (qv) in any given case proposed to it. In such a case the Opinion (qv) rendered is to specify the name(s) to be used in the case in question, and the action (if any) to be taken. 
REPLACEMENT NAME 
generally used as equivalent to substitute name (qv). [Used in ZR to record replacement names designated for reasons other than preoccupation (qv).] 
REVISION 
the presentation of new material or new interpretations integrated with previous knowledge through summary and reevaluation for a particular taxon. 
rite 
properly, correctly, according to the rules. 
saltem 
at least. 
scheda, sched. 
label (or a specimen). 
SCIENTIFIC NAME 
formal nomenclatural designation of a taxon. = Taxonomic name. 
SECONDARY HOMONYM 
each of two or more identical species names, which, at the time of original publication, were proposed in combination (qv) with different generic names, but which, through subsequent transference, have come to bear the same combination of generic and specific names. See also : Homonym. 
secundum, sec. 
according to. 
sedis incertae 
see incertae sedis. 
SENIOR HOMONYM 
the earlier published of two or more identical but independently proposed names for the same or different taxa. See also : Homonym. 
SENIOR SYNONYM 
the earlier published of two or more different names applied to one and the 
same taxon. See also : Synonym. 
sensu amplo 
see sensu lato. 
sensu lato, sens. lat., s.l. 
in the broad sense i.e. of a taxon - including all its subordinate taxa and/or other taxa sometimes considered as distinct. 
sensu stricto, sens. str., s.s. 
in the strict sense, in the narrow sense. Most often used to indicate the nominate subordinate taxon (qv) (e.g. A.... b.... s.s. = A.... b.... b....; A.... s.s. = A.... (A....) etc.). Or it may just indicate exclusion of similar taxa sometimes united with it. 
seu 
either, or. 
sic 
this, to signalize exact transcription. 
sine 
without. 
SPECIES GROUP 
the taxonomic categories species and subspecies. 
SPECIES INDETERMINATA, SP. INDET. 
undetermined species, one not identifiable with the description for a name already published. Usually given with a generic name only e.g. A.... sp. indet. 
SPECIES INQUIRENDUM (= SPECIES INQUIRENDA_) 
a species to be queried, a doubtfully identified (qv) species requiring further investigation. See also Nomen inquirendum. 
STABILITY OF NOMENCLATURE 
the Preamble of the Code (qv) states `the object of the Code is to promote stability' - one of the most important rules of the Code. If strict application of the rules of the Code threaten stability in an individual case then application of those rules may be suspended by the Commission (qv) under its Plenary Powers (qv). 
STATUS 
the status of a taxon indicates the rank (i.e. level in hierarchy of taxonomic categories) to which it belongs e.g. genus, subfamily etc. The status of a taxon may be elevated or reduced (with accompanying ending change when necessary), and this has no bearing on the authorship of the taxon. e.g. Subfamily A....inae Smith 1972 may be elevated (raised) to family A....idae Smith 1972 genus B.... Jones 1960 may be reduced (lowered) to subgenus A.... (B....) Jones 1960 
STATUS NOVUS, STAT. NOV. 
new status, representing a change in status (qv). 
STATUTE OF LIMITATION 
see Limitation, Statute of. 
STRICKLAND CODE 
a code of nomenclature prepared by a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, first published in 1842. See also : Code. 
SUBJECTIVE SYNONYM 
each of two or more different names applied to one and the same taxon based on different types, but regarded as referring to the same taxon by those who hold them to be synonyms. See also : Synonym. 
SUBSEQUENT SPELLING 
any change in the original spelling (qv) of a name becomes a subsequent spelling. See Code Article 33. 
CORRECT SUBSEQUENT SPELLING 
brought about by justified emendations (qv) of the original spelling. 
INCORRECT SUBSEQUENT SPELLING 
a change in spelling other than a justified emendation (qv). 
SUBSTITUTE NAME 
see Nomen substitutum. 
SUPPRESSION 
a form of invalidation (qv). A name which would be valid (qv) according to strict application of the rules of the Code, may be expressly suppressed by the Commission (qv), under its Plenary Powers (qv), to allow validation of another name, which would not otherwise have been valid (i.e. according to the rules of the Code). See Articles 23, 79 i.e. converts a previously valid name into an invalid one. 
SYNONYM 
each of two or more different names applied to one and the same taxon. See also JUNIOR SYNONYM, SENIOR SYNONYM, OBJECTIVE SYNONYM & SUBJECTIVE SYNONYM 
SYNONYMY 
i) the relationships between different names applied to the same taxon. 
ii) a chronological list of taxonomic names which have been applied to a single taxon, including authors and dates. When this includes bibliographic references for the name = Full Bibliographical Synonymy. 
SYNTYPE 
every specimen in a type series in which no holotype has been designated. 
SYSTEMATICS 
studies of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of any and all the relationships among them i.e. the science of the diversity of organisms - deals with populations, species and higher taxa. 
TAUTONYMY 
one and the same name applied both to a genus and to an included species e.g. Bison bison. 
TAXONOMIC GROUP 
a taxon with all its subordinate taxa and their individuals; e.g. the taxonomic group Insecta consists of all insects and their taxa. 
TAXONOMIC NAME 
see Scientific name. 
TAXONOMY 
studies of the relationships of taxa,including positional changes which do not involve changes in the names of taxa. See also : Nomenclature, Systematics. 
tomo citato, tom. cit. 
in the volume cited, used to avoid repetition of part of a bibliographic reference already given. 
TOPOTYPE 
a specimen collected at the type locality (qv). 
TOPOTYPICAL POPULATION 
population occurring at the type locality (qv) from which the type specimen (qv) was taken. 
TRACE FOSSILS 
see Work of an animal. 
TRANSFERRED NAME 
see Nomen translatum. 
TRINOMEN 
the combination of a generic name, a specific name, and a subspecific name, that together constitute a scientific name (qv) subspecies. 
TRIVIAL NAME 
see Nomen triviale. 
TYPE 
the standard of reference for determining the precise application of a name. Each taxon has, actually or potentially, a type.
- Type of a nominal species is a specimen (type specimen)
- Type of a nominal genus is the nominal species (type species)
- Type of a nominal family is the nominal genus (type genus)
TYPE DESIGNATION 
determination of the type (qv) of a taxon. (= Type selection). 
TYPE GENUS 
the type (qv) of a taxon at the family group level (i.e. family, subfamily, tribe etc.) - the nominal genus. 
TYPE HORIZON 
the geological stratum from which the name-bearing type of a nominal species or subspecies was collected. 
TYPE HOST 
the host species with which the name-bearing type of a nominal species or subspecies was associated. 
TYPE LOCALITY 
the geographical location of the occurrence of the population from which the type specimen (qv) (i.e. holotype, lectotype or neotype) was taken. Population occurring at type locality = topotypical population. Specimens collected at type locality = topotypes. 
TYPE MATERIAL 
a collective term for all type specimens (qv). Zoologists should ensure that such material is transferred as quickly as possible to public institutions where their safety is guaranteed and they are accessible to other workers. 
TYPE SELECTION 
see Type designation. 
TYPE SERIES 
the series of specimens which either constitutes the name-bearing type (syntypes) of a nominal species or subspecies or from which the name-bearing type has been or may be designated. 
TYPE SPECIES 
the nominal species that is the name-bearing type of a nominal genus or subgenus. 
TYPE SPECIMEN 
any specimen of the type series. 
TYPIFICATION 
see Type designation. 
typus conservandus, typ. cons. 
a type to be conserved. 
UNAVAILABLE NAME 
a name which does not meet all mandatory provisions of the Code (qv). Articles 10-20. Has no status in nomenclature. See also : Available name. Unavailable names include nomen nudum, - negatum, - vetitum, - nullum, - oblitum (all qv). 
UNJUSTIFIABLE EMENDATION 
see Emendation. 
UNINOMINAL 
consisting of a single name (e.g. names of the family group and of the genus group). 
UNPUBLISHED NAME 
any name which has not been printed and circulated to meet the criteria of publication as stated by the Code Articles 7-9. 
VAIN NAME 
see Nomen vanum. 
VALID NAME 
the correct name for a given taxon, which may have several available names (qv), one of which (usually the oldest) is chosen as the valid name. The valid name is always an available name (qv) (the reverse is not always true). An invalid name may be either an available or unavailable name. 
VALIDATION 
the action of making a name valid (qv). 
VARIETY 
an infrasubspecific (qv) category which has no status under the Code Article 45e. 
vere 
the true. 
VERNACULAR NAMES 
the colloquial names of taxa i.e. in any language or form other than that of zoological nomenclature. Have no status in nomenclature. 
VERTICAL CLASSIFICATION 
classification (qv) which stresses common descent and tends to unite ancestral and descendant groups of a phyletic line in a single higher taxon, separating them from contemporaneous taxa having reached a similar grade of evolutionary change. Compare : Horizontal classification. 
vide 
see. 
WORK OF AN ANIMAL 
results of the activity but not part of the animal itself e.g. tracks, trails, worm-tubes, borings (but excludes some fossil evidence such as internal moulds, external impressions and replacements). Names given to them are covered by certain rules of the Code - Articles 1a-b, 23f(iii) = Trace fossils. 
ZOOLOGICAL CONGRESSES 
see International Zoological Congresses.